Citation Detail:
GUO Yinfeng, ZOU Xueying, CHEN
Yan, WANG Di & WANG Sung. 1996. Sustainability of Wildlife Use in Traditional
Chinese Medicine. in: Conserving China's Biodiversity (John MacKinnon,
WANG Sung and etc.eds.). China Environmental Science Press. Beijing.
190-221p.
GUO Yinfeng,
ZOU Xueying, CHEN Yan, WANG Di & WANG Sung
(Endangered Species
Scientific Commission, PRC)
★[Introduction] ★[Objectives]★[Methods]★[Results]★[Discussions]★[Recommendations]★[References]
1. Introduction
The earliest record of
using plants for health care by Chinese people can be traced back to as early
as 2700 B.C. Yet the medical properties of animals were first identified some
two thousand years ago where 65 types of animal items were described (Bai, 1988).
Notwithstanding its long history and major role in the provision of medicament
in history, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) was not fully recognized and
developed until last decade when simultaneous attention to be paid to the development
of Western and traditional Chinese medicine was stressed in Constitution of
China in 1982 along with the institution of State Administration of Traditional
Chinese Medicine in 1988 (Song, 1994). In 1993 alone, TCM hospitals provided
outpatient service to nearly 200 million people. Total output generated by TCM
manufacturers in the corresponding year was valued at 1.65 billion US dollars
and export of TCM brought 120 million US dollars in foreign exchange to the
country (Song, 1994).
More than 1,500 animal species have been recorded to be of medicinal use (1995a & 1995b). The number of endangered and threatened species involved must be considerable, even if the percentage represented is unavailable. Among them are some highly endangered species such as tiger (Panthera tigris), rhinoceros (Rhinoceratidae), leopard (Panthera pardus), Asiatic black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus) and Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). The extent to which animal species are affected by use in TCM largely depends on the biological attributes and population status of the species concerned, nature of animal items used, quantities involved, etc. Whole bodies, parts and derivatives like organs, tissues, secretions, feces, pathological substances, etc. are the main items used. In conjunction with importance being attached to TCM, Chinese government became aware of the limits of fauna and flora to sustain an ever-increasing demand and initiated for the first time a comprehensive five-year long survey of medicinal plant and animal resources in 1983 in hope of developing this unique and deep-rooted medical care system on a sustainable basis. To date, 17 types of animal items are commonly used (China National Corporation of Traditional and Herbal Medicine, 1995a), 9 (53%) are protected including 4 (23.5%) by Wild Animal Protection Law (1989), 9 (53%) by Regulations on the Conservation and Management of Wild Resources of Medicinal Plants and Animals (1987) and 2 (12%) by Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). In species, these commonly used items involve among others musk deer (Moschus spp.) and pangolin (Manis pentadactyla), both covered by the legislation and international treaty above-mentioned. Moreover, supplies of 11 of the 17 types of commonly used animal items could not meet demand (China National Corporation of Traditional and Herbal Medicine, 1995a). These items include musk (Moschus spp.), pangolin scale (Manis pentadactyla), tortoise carapace and plastron (Chinemys reevesii), soft-shell turtle carapace (Trionyx sinensis), rat snake (Zaocys dhumnades), Viper (Agkistrodon acutus), many-banded krait (Bungarus multicinctus multicinctus), gecko (Gekko gecko), forest frog's oviduct (Rana temporaria chensinensis), etc.
However, little information is available after the survey regarding demand and supply of wildlife items for medicinal use. In view of over 100% increase in the number of TCM manufacturers and 110 times increase in the total output value generated by them during 1981 -1993 period (Song, 1994), demand for these items must be considerably increased, too. In addition, there is also a likelihood that more species are added to the list of common use.
The linkage between species endangerment and demand from traditional medicine has arrested much concern of conservation community both from China and the world. (Anon. 1996; Brautigam et al, 1994; Reed, 1995; Biodiversity Working Group, 1996; Wang, 1996; Mills, 1996) The continued use of endangered species in traditional Chinese medicine itself would have warranted closer scrutiny within China in the first hand following the lamentable disappearance of saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) from China and plight of tiger with few individuals remaining in the wild -- a totem of power and majesty deeply rooted in China's culture. While the issue of rhinoceros boiled down to be a global law enforcement problem extending beyond range States and consumer countries in spite of its Appendix I listing that prohibits international trade in them. Nevertheless, Chinese government issued a notice that prohibited trade in both rhinoceros horn and tiger bone in 1993 in order not to further endanger the remaining populations of the two species in the wild. This notice alone brought about an estimated loss of 240 million US dollars to TCM industry in China. Again in 1995, Chinese TCM communities and TRAFFIC for the first time got together to address the issue of conservation and use of fauna and flora in TCM, another significant step forward towards the conservation of endangered and threatened species.
China Council for International
Cooperation on Environment and Development (CCICED) is a high-level, non-governmental
consultative organization established to strengthen cooperation and exchange
between China and the international community in the field of environment and
development. One of its main objectives is to advise the Government of China
in the definition and implementation of long-term, integrated strategies and
policies that promote sustainable development. Biodiversity Working Group (BWG)
of CCICED recognized the concern of international conservation community over
the use of endangered and threatened species in TCM and in response initiated
a pilot project aimed at reviewing the significance of wildlife use in TCM with
particular focus on elements of endangerment whereby recommendations can be
duly made. This study was completed by a group of four staff of the Endangered
Species Scientific Commission of People's Republic of China (Chinese Scientific
Authority for CITES) in May and June of 1996. Six markets in cities of Anguo,
Yuzhou, Xi'an, Bozhou, Guangzhou and Chengdu were surveyed. TCM administration
bureaus, manufacturers, provincial companies and drugstores en route to markets
were visited whenever possible. In addition, questionnaires were used and sent
in collaboration with State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine and
Endangered Species Import and Export Administrative Office (Chinese Management
Authority for CITES) to 31 TCM companies, 182 TCM manufacturers and processors
as well as 31 provincial wildlife authorities. Recommendations were also proposed
based on findings of this study.
2. Objectives
A set of three-fold objectives
was established to achieve the goal of this project:
1）to identify animal species subject to significant use with focus on elements of endangerment through:
2）to project the sustainability of use of major animal species through analysis of a combined factors including:
3）to evaluate the effectiveness
of legislation in place relating to animal species of medicinal value.
3. Methods
Markets were assumed to be a good indicator of a number of components of this study including demand, supply and price of animal items, law enforcement, etc. A total of twenty-two herb markets in 15 provinces and autonomous regions in China are quoted in Medicine & Herbs Economic News (1996). Covert investigations were yet made to six of them including Anguo (AG, Hebei), Yuzhou (YZ, Henan), Xi‘an (XA, Shaanxi), Bozhou (BZ, Anhui), Qingping of Guangzhou (GZ, Guangdong) and Hehuangchi of Chengdu (CD, Sichuan) during May and June of 1996 because of their long history, large size and considerable numbers of stalls. Each of these markets was investigated only once during this survey due to limits of funding. Available in markets were mainly dried bodies, parts or derivatives of herbs and animals. The size of the six markets in terms of stall numbers varied greatly with about 4,600 in Bozhou, 1,900 in Anguo, 600 in Xi’an, 500 in Chengdu, 450 in Guangzhou and 200 in Yuzhou. Stalls also differed from one another in size, ownership, annual turnover, etc. The majority of the stalls in these markets were privately owned.
Major information collected included types of wildlife items, frequency of occurrence, amount visible offered for sale, price, source, etc. Types of animal items and species involved would both be recorded. Name of animal items was readily available from the required price and name label. In view of the difficulties in identifying species involved in animal items particularly when it came to derivatives, Chinese Pharmacopoeia (1990, 1995) were adopted as a standard reference. For animal items not included in these standard references, Essentials of Materia Medica in China and Medicines of China (Volume of Traditional Chinese Medicine) were consulted. This study did not contemplate to identify species composition of wildlife items found in markets, as it is highly likely that species not recorded in references might turn up, too. Frequency of occurrence was counted by the number of times one particular item appeared in a market. In case of difficulty, an estimated range would be given. Owing to shortage of time or insignificance of some items, sometimes even estimates were not given. Information on amount offered for sale was basically provided by the owner of the stall. However, an estimate might be given when it was unsuccessful or impractical to do so. For species inappropriate for measurement in weight, the standard measurement in market was adopted. In addition, 2 drugstores in Xi’an, 4 in Chengdu and 2 in Guangzhou were surveyed en route. Information collected mainly included availability and price of wildlife items.
Investigators also visited 2 TCM administration bureaus, 10 manufacturers and 1 processor as well as 6 companies to help evaluate the responses of questionnaires. Information acquired from manufacturers and companies were incorporated into appropriate tabulations with those from questionnaires, whereas those from the 2 administration bureaus and 1 TCM processor were only discussed in this study.
Questionnaires that included 34 types of wildlife items were sent to all the 104 key TCM manufacturers and 82 key raw material processors to gather data on numbers of TCM brands containing a particular wildlife item, annual mean consumption, purchase, import, stock, sales, export, frequency of use, substitute, etc. during 1990-95 (see Annex 1). 16 responses were received, a return rate of 9%. However, only 4 of the 16 responses were received from TCM processors.
TCM companies are the only legitimate businesses in the trade of protected plant and animal items of medicinal value. Each TCM company at provincial level -- 31 in total -- was sent with certain copies of questionnaires. The number of copies corresponded to the types of wildlife items of which the province is listed as an origin in Materia Medica Commonly Used in China. A total of 17 wildlife items were selected based on the reference mentioned above. Questionnaires mainly focus on purchase and sales of a particular type of wildlife item during 1990-95 period. 13 (41%) companies responded.
Questionnaires on farming of 17
species or taxonomic units of major significance were sent to all the 31 provincial
wildlife authorities annexed with 9 questions related with law enforcement issues
(see Annex 2). Number of farms, estimates of total number of animals and offspring
reproduced in all farms constituted the main elements of this questionnaire.
17 (55%) authorities responded.
4. Results
Animal items found and species involved
A total of 44 types of animal items are found in this study, 75.0% (33 types) in TCM manufacturers, 68.2% (30 types) in markets and 65.9% (29 types) in drugstores (Table 1). Of the 44 types of animal items, 19 (43.2%) are mammals, followed by invertebrates 12 (27.3%), reptiles 8 (18.2%), fishes 3 (6.8%) and amphibians 2 (4.5%).
The 44 types of animal items involve as many as 65 species (Table 2). There are more invertebrates 25 (38.5%) than mammals 19 (29.2%), coming up with fishes 10 (15.4%), reptiles 8 (12.3%) and amphibians 3 (4.6%). Of the 65 species found, 26 (40.0%) are covered by relevant legislation, including 19 (29.2%) by Wild Animal Protection Law, 18 (27.7%) by Regulations on the Conservation and Management of Wild Resources of Medicinal Plants and Animals and 13 (20.0%) by CITES. Species covered by all these legislation included saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica), Asiatic black bear, brown bear (Ursus arctos), tiger, leopard, pangolin and musk deer. Rhino horn and tiger bone were included in this survey because trade activities in them took place prior to the ban of May 29 of 1993.
★Table 1 Animal items found, description and availability (44types) (1990-June 1996)
★Table 2. Species concerned in this study and their status of protection (65 species*) (1990-June 1996)
Frequency of occurrence of animal items in six markets
Tortoise carapace and plastron, freshwater turtle carapace and pilose antler are the most commonly traded items in markets by the number of stalls selling them (Table 3-A). Among protected species or wildlife items, saiga horn, pangolin scale, many-banded krait, rat snake and gecko are popular in stalls. If considered by the availability of wildlife items in the number of markets, tortoise carapace & plastron, fresh-water turtle carapace, gecko, centipede, abalone shell, oyster shell, pilose antler, many-banded krait, rat snake, sea horse, scorpion, ground beetle, earthworm, cuttlefish's bone, saiga horn, leech, pangolin scale, etc. top the table (Table 3-B). Wildlife items such as musk, bear gall bladder, macaque calculus were not found in any of these markets, possibly because of their paucity, high prices and trade ban in markets.
★Table 3-A. Frequency of occurrence of animal items in six markets---- by number of stalls
★Table
3-B. Frequency of occurrence of animal items in six markets----
by availability in the number of markets
Quantities of animal items
available in markets
This survey only provided some indications of the volume of each item found in every market, since the most accurate records of the volume on shelf could not entirely reflect the total volume available behind the stalls. Topping Table 4 are saiga horn, pangolin scale, pilose antler, deer antler, tortoise carapace and plastron, fresh-water turtle carapace, gecko, rat snake, forest frog's oviduct and so on. Constrained by time, nature of this survey and number of people engaged, we omitted estimations of quantities for a number of items. Nevertheless, estimations were always given to the extent possible to protected species.
★Table 4. Quantity estimates of animal items found in six markets
Annual average consumption of animal items by TCM manufacturers during 1990-95 period
Of the 16 responses received from TCM manufacturers, two of them did not indicate unit of measurement and will accordingly not be used in the report. The return rate from TCM processors was too low (4 responses) to be included in the analysis. In addition, there is also a likelihood of data overlapping between TCM manufacturers and companies. As a result, they will neither be dealt with in this report. Of the 10 TCM manufacturers visited, only three were able to provide useful data. Therefore, Table 5 is the result of annual average consumption of animal items during 1990-95 period by 13 TCM manufacturers.
Generally speaking, there is an obvious considerable annual average consumption of wildlife items, which is exemplified by 255.249 kilograms of musk in 7 manufacturers, 216.662 kilograms of toad venom in 6 manufacturers, 796.820 kilograms of saiga horn in 4 manufacturers, 214.680 kilograms of pangolin scale in 3 manufacturers, 20,300 pieces plus 32.1 kilograms of many-banded krait in three manufacturers and 3,038.550 pairs of geckoes in 2 manufacturers. Most astounding of all is that one manufacturer we visited in Guangzhou averagely consumed 10,000 kilograms of snake gall bladders of several different species each year, the supply of which is met by five snake farms in Guangdong, Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces. None of these snake farms was visited in this survey as to their ability to provide such a colossal amount of snakes without substantial addition of snakes from the wild. To note that Table 5 only reflects the annual average consumption of wildlife items by 13 of the 104 key TCM manufacturers, and there are as many as 1000 TCM manufacturers in China.
★Table 5. Annual average consumption of animal items by 13 TCM manufacturers during 1990-95 period
Farming of medicinal wildlife species
Results of the 17 responses received
from provincial wildlife authorities revealed that at least one of the 17 taxonomic
units is being farmed in each province and 13 of them are done on a large scale
(Table 6). The most extensively farmed animal species are Sika Deer (Cervus
nippon), Red Deer (Cervus elaphus), Black Bear (Selenarctos thibetanus),
Fresh-water turtle (Trionyx sinensis), Reeve's Turtle (Chinemys reevesii),
Many-banded Krait (Bungarus multicinctus), Rat Snake (Zaocys dhumnades),
Viper (Agkistrodon acutus), Gecko (Gekko gecko) and Forest Frog
(Rana chensinensis).
According to this survey, Asiatic Black Bears are farmed in 228 localities of
10 provinces with a total of 7,474 individuals in captivity. The total individuals
in captivity appear to be lower compared with nearly 100,000 several years ago
(Cheng et al., 1993b). Offsprings bred in farms seem to be too low based
on this survey, as one farm with around 400 bears in Sichuan alone successfully
bred 64 bears in 1996 (per. comm.). The reproduction of Musk Deer seems to be
also inaccurate (Cheng et al, 1993a; Sichuan Musk Deer Farming Institute,
1994).
★Table 6. Farming of 17 medicinal animal species in China
Price of wildlife items in markets and drugstores
Price of wildlife items vary considerably depending on their rarity, demand for them, time and efforts devoted to collection, etc. Generally speaking, there are more mammal items on the highest price list than other groups topped with musk (92.4yuan/g - 30yuan/0.2g), macaque calculus (133yuan/g) and bear gall bladder (63-121yuan/5g), all found only in drugstores (see Tale 7). Other mammal items like pilose antler (800-6,500yuan/kg), saiga horn (500-750yuan/kg) and pangolin scale (550-720yuan/kg) rank in the second price range. Reptiles are the second group of species that fetch considerably high price exemplified by hawksbill turtle (450-900yuan/kg), viper (300-620yuan/kg) and many-banded krait (7-15yuan/piece). Other items in attractive price include sea horse (1,000-1,900yuan/kg), red coral (650-2,000yuan/kg), forest frog's oviduct (1,000yuan/kg), etc. The price of wildlife items has a wide range mainly as a result of different factors including quality, size, species, etc. Market price of saiga horn dropped from 6,000 yuan per kilogram in 1990 to as low as 500-720 yuan per kilogram mainly due to large amount of imports from countries constituting former Soviet Union before saiga was included in Appendix II of CITES in 1994. Sea horse fetches high price mainly because of recent increasing demand for them in Guangdong Province.
★Table 7. Price of wildlife items in markets and drugstores
Overview of management of trade in animal parts and derivatives of medicinal value
Purchase and sales of wildlife items by 13 TCM companies
A total of 35 responses were received
from 13 companies on the purchase and sales of 15 wildlife items. In aggregate,
5 companies responded to musk, 4 to soft-shell turtle carapace, 3 to pilose
antler, 3 to deer antler, 3 to tortoise carapace, 2 to pangolin scale, 2 to
sea horse, 2 to toad venom, 2 to viper, 2 to many-banded krait, 2 to scorpion,
2 to earthworm, 1 to gecko, 1 to rat snake and 1 to centipede. Results of questionnaires
are tabulated in Table 8.
Quite a satisfactory response
rate was expected from Sichuan, Xizang, Qinghai, Yunnan and Shaanxi on the purchase
and sales of musk during 1990-95 period. Results showed a marketed decline of
purchase in particularly two provinces. According to manager of Shaanxi TCM
Company, musk purchase fell to the lowest record of a dozen kilograms in recent
years, a straightforward decrease compared to the highest record of 200 kilograms.
The situation in Sichuan is most severe, musk purchase plummeted from more than
200 kilograms during 1990-93 to less than 2 kilograms in 1994-95. It is evident
that if demand for musk is not reduced substantially, musk production in these
five major range provinces will only be able to suffice the demand of merely
12 of over 1,000 TCM manufacturers.
Purchase of pangolin scale by one TCM company alone during 1990-93 amounted to 74,619 kilograms and peaked in 1990 by 41,921 kilograms. These alarming figures sound unbelievable linking to the number of animals concerned in a few years time. Annual domestic purchase of 110,000 pairs of geckos in 1983 was far exceeded by two million pairs in 1993, which was undoubtedly supplied by resources of other countries.
Each respondent is asked with three questions starting with trend of supply, trade status and source of the wildlife item in question. Majority of the answers to trend of supply to these wildlife items are "declining"except stable for centipede, pilose antler and earthworm. It can also be drawn from these answers that trade status of most wildlife items are "much sought after"with the exception of rat snake, earthworm and centipede. In addition, 2 of the 4 answers indicated stable for soft-shell turtle carapace.
Regarding to source, all responses to 10 of 15 wildlife items indicated wild as the only source. These items include musk, pangolin scale, earthworm, centipede, scorpion, rat snake, many-banded krait, viper, gecko and toad venom. Sea horse and soft-shell turtle carapace are indicated as"mainly from the wild". Two of the three responses to tortoise carapace mentioned wild as the source while another mentioned "mainly wild". Two of the three responses indicated 90-95% of pilose antler is derived from farmed deer and one response did not provide the source. In contrast, two of the three responses to deer antler mentioned "all wild "as the source with no source provided by another.
★Table
8. Purchase and sales of 15 wildlife items by 13 TCM companies during 1990-95
period
5. Discussions
Twenty types of animal
items involve species covered by relevant legislation in addition to rhino horn
and tiger bone, whose trade was banned since May 29 1993 (Table 1 and 2). If
frequency of occurrence, quantities available in markets and annual consumption
by TCM manufacturers are taken into account, as many as 12 items are used in
significant quantities, including musk, deer parts, saiga horn, pangolin scales,
leopard bone, viper, many-banded krait, gecko, rat snake, toad venom, forest
frog's oviduct and sea horse (Table 3-A, 3-B, 4 and 5). Considering animal items
subject to significant use while presently not covered by legislation such as
tortoise carapace and plastron, soft-shell turtle carapace and centipede, the
total number of animal items subject to significant use shall increase to 15.
However, planned purchase and highly controlled distribution of some important TCM raw materials by TCM companies -- all government-owned -- before 1990s broke down to free competition among all TCM raw material traders with the lion's share taken by private enterprise or households, at least so in markets. Volumes of wildlife items offered for sale openly in these markets obviously represent a small fraction of the total behind the scenes. According to a retailer in Guangzhou, the volume of annual sale of sea horse in Qingping market would be in the neighborhood of 60,000 kilograms compared to 20-30 bags observed during one survey. Similarly, a lady seller in Anguo market piled in front of her two sacks of rat snake -- estimated 30 kilograms in total -- and claimed to have 1,000 kilograms more in her warehouse when our investigator pretended to be interested in buying.
If price index is used as an indicator of species rarity, endangerment and level of demand, a number of species sooner or later will be driven to the verge of extinction should current trend of demand and management practice continue. These species, according to this survey, include leopard, pangolin, musk, etc. High price of wildlife items eventually poses such problems as poaching throughout the distribution ranges of the species concerned. In Baiyu County of Sichuan Province, 200,000 snares were found in musk deer's natural habitats during 1990-91. Population density of musk deer decreased by 12- 95% in six distribution sites ranging from sanctuaries to non-protected areas (Yang, 1997). Market price of pangolin scale increased 14-17 times from 1984 to 1988 and consequently the wild populations were nearly exterminated due to sharp increase in price (1995a). It was found in this survey, however, that market price of pangolin scale in 1996 doubled the price of 300-320 yuan per kilogram in 1995. It is quite reasonable to assume that this slowing down of price increase in the last two years could also imply an existing supply of pangolin scale from China's neighboring countries. There was a 40% difference in the annual demand of viper and rat snake in mid 1980s (1995a). However, the market price of viper was seen to be 4 to 12 times higher than that of rat snake, an obvious scarcity of the species in the wild. In addition, the food value in snake species further threatens its survival. It is obvious that this species has qualified for inclusion in protected species list of WAPL.
For some animal items, high price may not reflect true population status and demand of the species concerned. The high price of macaque calculus is largely due to its difficulties to obtain and has little to do with population status given the relative abundance of the species in the wild and nearly 10,000 animals in captivity. Bear gall bladders are highly valued in traditional Chinese medicine and nearly 10,000 bears were killed each year to meet domestic demand. In mid 1980s, both health department and wildlife authority in China attached great importance to the role of bear farming in meeting demand of bear gall bladders from traditional medicine industry and conserving its wild populations in the wild. It was found in this survey that 3 of the 12 TCM manufacturers consumed an annual average of 30 kilograms of bear gall powder from farmed bears, an amount that can be obtained either by 10-20 farmed bears or by 600 wild bears.
Farming of wildlife of medicinal value has been widely accepted by both conservation and TCM communities in China as a means to relieve pressure on wild populations. This practice has also gained affirmative encouragement from WAPL. Sika deer, soft-shell turtle and musk deer are successfully farmed in China (Cheng & Zhang, 1993). Domestic demand for pilose antler could entirely be met by farmed production as early as in 1980s (1995a). This is supported by this survey that 90-95% of pilose antler are derived from farms. The survey also indicates that both soft-shell turtle carapace and tortoise carapace are mainly from the wild. This implies that, in spite of the success of farming soft-shell turtles, the products from the farms only cater to food markets rather than to favor unprofitable Herb markets. Musk is one of the most commonly used animal parts and derivatives in TCM. However, as few as 2,195 animals are being farmed in 12 localities of four provinces and musk production is low. According to Shaanxi TCM Company, one farm with 120 musk deer in Shaanxi could produce annually 500 grams of musk. Furthermore, low government subsidies and controlled price of musk derived from farms greatly hindered the motivation and incentives of most musk deer farms in China. Annual demand for snake species in mid-1980s by TCM industry stood at 800,000 pieces for many-banded krait, 60,000 kilograms for viper and 99,000 kilograms for rat snakes (1995a). Accordingly, farming of snakes warrants closer examination due to both the significant number of farms and snakes involved. Given the significant annual demand for pangolin scale around 100,000 kilograms in mid 1980s, farming will come too late for pangolins in China and neighboring countries to perpetuate.
Even though this survey did not investigate the issue of what proportions of farmed animals and products thereof are destined for Herb markets, responses to questionnaires by TCM companies indicate that only pilose antler from farms can meet demand but with quite a proportion of deer antler in trade originating from the wild, probably because higher value of pilose antler does not allow growth to antler. That production of bear gall powder from farmed bears could satisfy domestic market demand is further supported by the limited annual average consumption by the 12 manufacturers. The problems seem to be with other wildlife items such as musk, pangolin scale, rat snake, many-banded krait, viper, gecko and toad venom, the demand of which according to this survey is solely met by wild populations. Given the limited number of responses to each wildlife item concerned, it would be premature to draw any conclusion whatsoever regarding to the source of these wildlife items, as it is likely that the true situation may not be well reflected by the questionnaires received.
Several major wildlife items in markets in particular those under protection are found to come from China's neighboring countries. Saiga horn is undoubtedly an imported item from former Soviet Union given the critical status of possible extinction of the species in China. Guangdong TCM company estimated that 80% of 8,000 kilograms of sea horse sold in 1995 were imported from Hong Kong. It is also certain that a substantial number of geckos are derived from China's neighboring countries. While the percentage the imports of tortoise carapace and plastron and pangolin scale account for market demands in China is still unknown, however, it was reported that majority of the fresh water tortoises and turtles sold in major cities in Viet Nam were destined for China market as food and traditional medicine material. There are also concerns that the demand for traditional Chinese medicine may be the major factor depleting wildlife resources in China's neighboring countries (Brautigam, et al., 1994; Lau, et al., 1997; Li et al., 1996; Martin, et al., 1996; Sompoad et al., 1992).
Wild Animal Protection Law (WAPL) of China puts protected species into two categories, which are included in List of Wild Animals under State's Key Protection. Capture, killing, sale, purchase, transportation and carrying of protected species or products thereof are prohibited unless approved by wildlife authorities at certain level. Once approved, Special Hunting Permit and Hunting Gun Possession License are required to capture or kill protected species. In addition, Regulations for the Conservation of Wild Terrestrial Animals explicitly forbid the sale and purchase of protected species or products thereof in markets. Regulations on the Conservation and Management of Wild Resources of Medicinal Plants and Animals afford three categories of protection to a total of 76 species corresponding to 42 types of plant and animal items included in the List of Wild Resources of Medicinal Plants and Animals under State's Key Protection. The Regulations forbid the collection or killing of species included in Category I. The collection or killing of Category II or III species are subject to prior grant of Medicine Collection Permit based on plans proposed by medicine departments in collaboration with wildlife departments at or above county level and approved by medicine departments at higher level. The Regulations further provide that businesses in Category II and III species shall only be undertaken by China TCM Company.
However, if these legislation were properly enforced, TCM companies would have withstood the competition with private business or enterprises and trade in raw materials covered by Regulations of Conservation and Management of Wild Medicinal Resources would have been under control to some extent buttressed by favorable policies enabling them to monopoly the trade in protected species. Even if the Regulations on the Conservation and Management of Wild Medicinal Species are the most appropriate legal tool in the control of market sales of wildlife items and there are warnings of trade in medicinal items covered by the Regulations in nearly all markets, these warnings and signs more often than not are neglected substantiated by the availability of geckos in all six markets and many-banded krait and rat snake in five of them. Wild Animal Protection Law has not ruled out among other activities the harvest, trade and use of species included in protected species list attached to it for medicinal use. However, it is largely left aside in these markets as wildlife authorities in a number of these cities where markets are located are clearly not involved together with departments of TCM, public health, industry and commerce, public security, price and tax in the management of markets, even if 82% of the provincial wildlife authorities affirmed this power. It is clear some approaches must be found towards a more effective implementation of WAPL and the Regulations on Conservation and Management of Wild Medicinal Species, as lack of coordination between different departments concerned is considered by wild animal authorities as a major problem.
Ground beetle, rat snake, earthworm,
scorpion, tortoise carapace, many-banded krait, pangolin scale, pearl, sea horse,
pilose antler, gecko, forest frog's oviduct, centipede, viper, toad venom, soft-shell
turtle carapace and musk are the 17 types of wildlife items included in Materia
Medica Commonly Used in China justified by constituting
main components of medicines to treat common and frequently occurring diseases,
their long history of use and large amount involved, etc. Except ground beetle,
earthworm, pearl, pilose antler, centipede, toad venom, demand for 11 other
wildlife items could not be met as early as in mid 1980s. (1995a) During 1981-93
period, the number of TCM manufacturers doubled and total output value generated
by TCM industry increased by 11 times. (Song, 1994) Taking in account these
remarkable development of TCM industry, there must be a considerable increase
in demand for wildlife items. Furthermore, demand for wildlife items that once
were considered to be stable is highly likely to increase, too. Therefore, there
is good reason to conclude, at least at this stage, that it is demand rather
than sustainability that determines the use of wildlife resources of medicinal
value.
6. Recommendations
The following recommendations are put forward based on the findings of this study:
Annex 1
Date: 28 May 1996
Dear Sirs (TCM manufacturers and processors),
Biodiversity Working Group (BWG) of China Council for International Cooperation in Environment and Development (CCICED) has initiated a project entitled Assessment of the Use of Key Wildlife of Medicinal Value that intends to discover the relationship between medicinal use of wildlife and status of species concerned. This project is undertaken by Endangered Species Scientific Commission of the People's Republic of China and supported by Production and Distribution Department of State Traditional Chinese Medicine Administration.
Major components of this study include information supplied by traditional Chinese medicine trading companies on purchase, sale, stock, source, market trends, etc. during 1990-1995 period as well as manufacturers on the use of medicinal wildlife.
To ensure the objectivity and accuracy of this survey, please fill in this questionnaire carefully and return to the following address before June 30 of 1996:
Endangered Species Scientific Commission,
P.R.C
19 Zhongguancun Lu, Haidian
Beijing 100080, People's Republic of China
Should you have any questions with respect to this questionnaire, please feel free to contact:
Mr. Guo Yinfeng, Ms. Zou Xueying, Ms. Chen Yan or Ms. Wang Di
Telephone: 010-6256-4680, 6264-7675
Fax: 010-6264-7675
Endangered Species Scientific Commission
P.R.China
Stamp
Questionnaire on the Use of Wildlife
in Traditional Chinese Medicine
(Average during 1990-95
period)
| wildlife item | No.of TCM | demand | purchase | import | stock | sales | import | frequency of use | substitute |
|
Bear gall bladder |
|||||||||
| Bear gall powder | |||||||||
| Rhino horn | |||||||||
| Saiga horn | |||||||||
| Tiger bone | |||||||||
| Leopard bone | |||||||||
| Musk | |||||||||
| Pangolin scale | |||||||||
| Elephant skin | |||||||||
| Hedgehog skin | |||||||||
| Pilose antler | |||||||||
| Deer antler | |||||||||
| Deer genitals | |||||||||
| Deer tail | |||||||||
| Tortoise carapace | |||||||||
| Soft-shell turtle carapace | |||||||||
| Gecko | |||||||||
| Feces of flying squirrel | |||||||||
| Feces of bat | |||||||||
| Rat snake | |||||||||
| Viper | |||||||||
| Many-banded krait | |||||||||
| Toad venom | |||||||||
| Forest frog's oviduct | |||||||||
| Scorpion | |||||||||
| Ground beetle | |||||||||
| Sea horse | |||||||||
| Earthworm | |||||||||
| Centipede | |||||||||
| Abalone shell | |||||||||
| Oyster shell | |||||||||
| Hawksbill turtle | |||||||||
| Aspongopus sinensis | |||||||||
| Coral |
Annex 2
Questionnaire on the Breeding and Management of Medicinal Wildlife
Date: 15 May 1996
Dear Sirs (Provincial wildlife authorities),
Biodiversity Working Group (BWG) of China Council for International Cooperation in Environment and Development (CCICED) has initiated a project entitled Assessment of the Use of Key Wildlife of Medicinal Value that intends to discover the relationship between medicinal use of wildlife and status of species concerned. This project is undertaken by Endangered Species Scientific Commission and supported by Endangered Species Import and Export Administrative Office of the People'>s Republic of China.
Enclosed with this letter are Questionnaire on the Breeding of 17 Species of Medicinal Wildlife and Questionnaire on the Management of Medicinal Wildlife in order to ascertain the true offtake of species from the wild and the role played by wildlife authorities in the control of trade in medicinal wildlife.
To ensure that the results of this survey are objective and accurate, please fill in these questionnaires carefully and return them to the following address before June 30 of 1996:
Endangered Species Scientific Commission, P.R.C
19 Zhongguancun Lu, Haidian
Beijing 100080, People's Republic of China
Should you have any questions with respect to this questionnaire, please feel free to contact:
Mr. Guo Yinfeng, Ms. Zou Xueying, Ms. Chen Yan or Ms. Wang Di
Telephone: 010-6256-4680, 6264-7675
Fax: 010-6264-7675
Endangered Species Import and Export
Endangered Species Scientific
Administrative Office Commission,
P.R.China
P.R.China
Stamp
Stamp
Questionnaire on the Breeding
of 17 Taxa of Medicinal Wildlife
|
Wildlife name |
Scientific name | Farms (Yes or No) |
No. of farms | No. of animals
in ll farms |
Estimates of |
|
Fresh-water turtle |
Trioyx sinensis | ||||
| Tortoise | Chinemys reevesii | ||||
| Sika Deer | Cervus nippon | ||||
| Saiga | Saiga tatarica | ||||
| Leopard | Panthera pardus | ||||
| Red Deer | Cervus elaphus | ||||
| Musk Deer | Moschus spp. | ||||
| Asiatic Black Bear | Selenarctos thibetanus | ||||
| Brown Bear | Ursus arctos | ||||
| Pangolin | Manis pentadactyla | ||||
| Toad | Bufo bufo | ||||
| Toad | Bufo melanostictus | ||||
| Forest Frog | Rana temporaria | ||||
| Many-banded Krait | Bungarus multicinctus | ||||
| Rat Snake | Zaocys dhumnades | ||||
| Viper | Agkistrodon halys | ||||
| Gecko | Gekko gecko |
Notes:
1. Zoos are not included in
this questionnaire;
2. Estimation is accepted
if records are unavailable.
Questionnaire on the Management of Medicinal Wildlife