(PHASE TWO)
FOURTH REPORT (2000)

• Review available literature on invasive species;
  
• Establish a preliminary list of invasive species in China;
  
• Collect taxonomic information, pictures, native habitats, current distribution range, distribution maps, time of invasion, reasons and approaches, developing trends, natural enemies, destructive mechanisms and extent, potential harm, means of prevention, control measures, etc.;
  
• Establish an invasive species information system;
  
• Develop close cooperation with local specialists to provide information for the information system;
  
• Select key sites and species according to the information and data collected; and
  
• Publish booklets highlighting the ecological problem of invasive species in China (both in Chinese and inEnglish).
  

• Continue development of CSIS and publish it on the BWG webpage;
• Hold at least one regional Red List workshop and apply new Red List Criteria to Chinese animals and plants;
• Continue assessment of invasive species in China and their impact on biodiversity conservation;
• Distribute "Field Guide to the Birds of China" to nature reserves;
• Continue with development of the mammal guides;
• Continue Alpine Grassland Demonstration Project;
• Continue website development;
• Analyse and advise on reforestation programs and liase with the Task Force on Grasslands and Forest;
• Analyse and advise on the biodiversity component of the Western Development Program; and
• Hold at least one BWG meeting in conjunction with a sectoral meeting (Tentatively set for Qinghai Province in August 2001)
  If funding becomes available, the BWG will also begin preparation of a demonstration provincial-level Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan

4. Publications of BWG (1999-2000)

• MacKinnon, J., and K. Phillipps. 2000. Field Guide to the Birds of China. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
  
• MacKinnon, J., K. Phillipps, He Fenqi. 2000. Field Guide to the Birds of China. Hunan Education Publishing House, Hunan, China. (in Chinese)
  
• Smith, A. T. and J. M. Foggin. 1999. The plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae) is a keystone species for biodiversity on the Tibetan plateau. Animal Conservation 2:235-240.
  
• Wang, S. (ed.) et al. IUCN Chinese Newsletter (issue 10-13) (in Chinese)
  
• XIE Yan, LI Zhenyu, William P. Gregg, LI Dianmo. 2000. Invasive Species in China -- An Overview. (Accepted by Biodiversity and Conservation)

5. Funding of BWG Activities

For 2000-2001, the BWG has received financial support from the Norwegian Government to cover general operation costs, sectoral and annual meetings, and implementation of some projects. This has improved our financial situation considerably, and we can now implement many projects that have been awaiting support. In addition we have received a grant from the British Government Environment Project Fund for development and publicising the CSIS on the Internet. The Kadoorie Charitable Foundation provided a small grant to investigate the effect of pika control on biodiversity, and The World Bank (through the IUCN Regional Biodiversity Programme for South and Southeast Asia) and the WWF China Programme supported publication of the "Field Guide to the Birds of China" in Chinese.

BWG activities have also received assistance from CCICED, SEPA, SFA, WWF and IUCN. As shadow ministers of BWG, Council members of CCICED, Claude Martin, and Maritta R. von Bieberstein Koch Weser, have provided assistance to the work of BWG. We sincerely appreciate the assistance of these sources of support, and we are especially thankful to the Norwegian Government for their major grant.

6. National Level Recommendations of BWG

Major Recommendations for Consideration by CCICED

Recommendation 1:Incorporate Biodiversity Conservation Concerns in the Western Development Program
The government of China is focusing major new development efforts in its less well-developed western provinces through the Western Development Programme. If these investments are to provide long-term sustainable benefits, they must take into consideration possible environmental impacts, including effects on biodiversity. Biodiversity plays a fundamental role in providing goods and services for sustainable development and for maintaining the good functioning of the ecosystem.

Currently too little is known of the ecosystems and biodiversity of the west. The construction of roads, establishment of hydro-electric plants, and drilling for natural gas are activities conducted without guidance of the necessary knowledge with regard to their impact on these fragile natural environments. The Western Development Program will implement activities in the major catchment areas of the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers and will therefore have far-reaching effects across all of China. In addition, not enough is being done to ensure that the unique cultures of the region will be preserved in the face of such rapid modernisation. As many of these cultures have lived sustainably on these marginal lands for centuries, this cultural knowledge is essential and should be applied to the development process.
Therefore, the BWG recommends:
That all new infrastructure projects in western China incorporate environmental considerations at the very earliest planning stages, that all relevant scientific expertise be involved at all steps in the process, and that biodiversity considerations be made a central feature in all such work.

That more studies should be conducted to better understand the functioning of ecosystems and cultural aspects of nature management in these regions so that preservation of culture and cultural knowledge can be included into the development process. This is also in accordance with Article 8j of the CBD.

Recommendation 2:Increase Support to the Protection of Watershed Forests in Western China

With regard to the government's major programme to restore forest cover and hydrological functions of the upper catchments of major rivers, the BWG recommends (details in Appendix II):

That a permanent source of funds must be established to continue the programme of forest protection and the withdrawal of agriculture from steep areas.

The levels of compensation for farmers to reforest their fields should be more realistic in scale and duration than those currently established.

The emphasis should be on 'ecological' forestry rather than planting economic crops, and forests should be designed to be balanced, functional ecosystems, complete with local wildlife, that can sustain themselves naturally without constant human inputs.

Only native species that would occur naturally in the area of reforestation should be planted.

Ecologists should be integrated into the planning and implementation of the scheme.

The logging ban also provides a unique opportunity to review the status of forests now protected from logging. In addition, corridors should be planned between existing forests. A goal should be established to achieve a more complete representation of protected forest types combining strengthening of the biodiversity conservation and hydrological protection.

Recommendation 3:Control the Problem of Alien Invasive Species
Although China has benefited economically by the introduction of new species from outside the country, many introduced species are extremely damaging to human health, environment, and the economy. In India and the USA, introduced species have been estimated to cost more than USD 100 billion per year in damage to crops, natural resources and human health. Other countries such as Australia totally ban the introduction of any non-native species into their country. Known as "Alien invasive species," they are being addressed under the Convention on Biological Diversity (Article 8h), the Convention on the Law of the Sea (Article 196), the International Plant Protection Convention, and the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measure under the World Trade Organisation. Such species pose a significant threat to China's economic welfare, with weeds, marine invertebrates, and new diseases causing damage amounting to billions of dollars per year. During the period 1994-July 1999, Oregon grass seed exports to China have grown from 39,000 kg to 3 million kg. The Oregon Seed Council estimates that in five to ten years China could import 48 million kg of seed annually. Part of the rationale for the import of the grass seed is that seeding expansive regions of Western China will reduce the severity of erosion and eliminate the dust storms that plague Beijing. Erosion control trials by using Oregon species to prevent erosion were also established in Yichang at the site of the Three Gorges Dam. Such massive importation of alien grass seed will definitely cause irreversible impact and damage to China's endemic biodiversity. Details were in the Appendix III. In response to this problem, the BWG recommends that China:

Assign a high-level focal-point to address the issue of alien invasive species and in particular the licensing of deliberate introduction of non-native plants, with the jurisdiction to bring together national experts on agricultural pests, human health, fisheries, forestry, tourism, transport, trade, and others.

Review national legislation to ensure that it is compliant with all relevant international conventions and programs, such as enacting legislation to ban planting of alien species in or adjacent to nature reserves; also prohibiting deliberate introductions unless they can be proved to be safe to health and the environment and where it can be demonstrated that domestic species cannot perform the same functions.

Develop an approach for erosion control that emphasizes use of endemic species and use native species instead of imported alien species in all replanting schemes.

Design a new programme, perhaps in co-operation with the Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP), to develop national and provincial capacity to deal with this problem, including public education, effective phytosanitary controls, monitoring of ecosystems, and risk assessment.

Additional National Level Recommendations

Recommendation 4:Building Biodiversity Conservation into all Sectors
Biodiversity conservation is an important concern to all sectors of society. While it is reasonable for lead or co-ordinating responsibility to be assigned to environmental agencies, other sectors must also be involved if all concerns are to be adequately addressed. Agriculture, forestry, fisheries, industry, tourism, trade, transport, rural development, and even the military all draw on the benefits of biodiversity and can contribute to its conservation and sustainable use. Therefore, the BWG
recommends:
That the planning sections of all ministries include biodiversity concerns in their plans, and draw on the best available scientific expertise in doing so.

That each sector develop sectoral action plans outlining their role in implementing the CBD.

That establish a cross-sectoral co-ordinating body to strengthen communication and complementary activities among the the biodiversity management authorities.

Recommendation 5:Freshwater Biodiversity
As China's economy expands and its population continues to grow, more pressure will be put on its freshwater systems. The government of China is well aware of its hydrological challenges, but biodiversity aspects of this issue are not being adequately addressed. Many rivers are dangerously polluted, killing the fish that are essential elements of many ecosystems and important elements in the diet of many people. The lack of riverine birds that once were common is a worrying indicator of a serious problem that affects human health and economic well being. The BWG therefore recommends that the central and relevant provincial governments of China:

Vigorously enforce water pollution legislation.

Establish well-managed and well-funded protected areas in wetlands and rivers to maintain healthy breeding stocks of all species of freshwater fish and invertebrates native to China.

Use only native species in aquaculture.

Fully involve fisheries experts at the earliest stages of any major development plans affecting rivers and wetlands.

Recommendation 6:Agriculture and Biodiversity
China is a global hotspot for agricultural biodiversity, serving as the centre of origin for many species of food crops using domestic animals (including fish), medicinal plants, and ornamental plants. With modern biotechnology, the native genetic material becomes even more valuable and useful. In addition, the traditional agricultural systems also support a high biodiversity of wildlife. Such diversity needs to be maintained both on working farms -- managed on ecological principles -- and in gene banks. The BWG therefore recommends that:

In planning for the improvement of agricultural land on shallow slopes, relevant authorities should draw upon the results of experiments on ecological agriculture already undertaken, along with relevant traditional techniques. Improvements should be based on these rather than on techniques dependent on fertilizers and pesticides or biotechnology.

A well-funded experimental monitoring programme should be undertaken focusing on agricultural crops subject to serious pest problems, and attempts should be made to ameliorate these problems using organic / ecological agricultural techniques.

Gene banks should be established for all species of agricultural importance native to China, covering the full range of local varieties. The wild relatives of all such species should also be included, in the expectation that modern biotechnology will be able to use these genetic materials to make new advances in the future.

The occurrence of wild relatives of domesticated plants and animals should be recorded for all protected areas, enabling them to act as a "living gene bank." Research should be co-ordinated with relevant departments of agriculture.

Recommendation 7:Undertake an updated Biodiversity inventory of China
Increasing prosperity has led to increased demand for food, timber, and medicines, both traditional Chinese and western. Hundreds of captive breeding/propagation facilities have been established across the country to meet this burgeoning market demand. In many cases, captive breeding does not meet demand and the threat to wild populations grows. While extensive efforts and investment have been made in ex situ conservation in China, relatively little support has been provided to support in situ conservation of species and habitats on which these resources are based. The result is a fundamental lack of knowledge of the wild 'reserves' of these resources and the relationships and interactions among them.

A basic understanding of the current status of China's in situ biodiversity is crucial to management and sustainable use of these precious resources. A national biodiversity inventory is essential background information for those responsible to develop and implement biodiversity policy and legislation and for those involved in designating protected areas. In addition, this activity is a requirement of China's commitment to implement the CBD, in particular Article 7 (Identification and Monitoring). The BWG therefore recommends that:

A new national biodiversity inventory should be undertaken across all provinces. This will necessitate the preparation of new identification guides and keys, training of field collectors and taxonomists at provincial level and a revitalisation of museum activity and standards. The programme should be co-ordinated by CAS and may necessitate the establishment of a specialised Biodiversity Institute. Results of this study would help identify which areas / species / aspects, etc., should be of conservation priority.

An attempt should be made to better understand relationships among key species, functional groups and guilds, as this will provide a scientific basis for the management and restoration of biodiversity and natural ecosystems.

Appendix I:

CCICED Biodiversity Working Group
23-27 July 2000
Workshop on Biodiversity Conservation in Sichuan Province
RECOMMENDATIONS

The Biodiversity Working Group of the CCICED held a Workshop on Biodiversity Conservation in Sichuan Province from 23-28 July 2000. Specific reports regarding field visits made during the BWG Sectoral workshop are included below:

Ex Situ Conservation in Sichuan
The BWG recognises China's long-term commitment to conservation of wild populations and to meeting the medicinal and nutritional requirements of China through captive breeding of wildlife. Captive breeding can play a role for certain species in alleviating demand on wild populations and as a genetic 'safety' net, if this is supported by the necessary in-situ conservation measures. However, there is a lack of suitable funding mechanisms for in-situ conservation. In addition, there is a severe lack of co-ordination and communication between relevant government agencies - such as medicinal, wildlife management and enforcement authorities - which undermines the efforts and advances that are being made.

China has made many advances in the captive breeding of bears for the production of bile for medicinal purposes, and productivity has increased through improved technology for the extraction of bile. Widespread application of such improved techniques would address some international concerns regarding the welfare of bears bred in captivity for the production of bile.

Sika deer Cervus nippon have been successfully bred in captivity over many centuries for pilose antler. However, the total global population is no more than 1000 animals and all sub-species are listed in the IUCN Global Red List as either Endangered or Critically Endangered. Similarly, while there are currently 5,000 Chinese alligator Alligator sinensis in captivity, surveys carried out in 1999 report less than 60 animals in the wild. Successful captive breeding alone does not assure maintenance of healthy wild populations.

Advances have been made in the captive breeding of musk deer (Moschus spp.) since inception of such programs in late 1950s, but production of musk from captive-bred populations meets a very small percentage of domestic demand and is unlikely to ever satisfy domestic demand. Wild populations are still under intense pressure from illegal hunting. However, research of properly managed, self-sustaining captive populations may provide valuable information to benefit the species in the wild.
Therefore, the BWG recommends:
Research
Determine present status and monitor population trends of species in the wild.
Funding
Examine ways by which captive breeding operations may contribute financially to in-situ conservation.
Co-ordination
Establish a cross-sectoral co-ordinating body to strengthen communication and complementary activities among the medicinal manufacturers and authorities, wildlife management authorities and enforcement authorities, including regular meetings and activities such as exchange of personnel between the wildlife management authorities and medicinal authorities.
Alternatives
Where possible, practitioners of traditional medicine are encouraged to explore alternative ingredients for those species for which an adequate supply cannot be obtained sustainably from wild or captive-bred populations. This may include medicinal ingredients from non-threatened species and/or chemically derived synthetics. Accurate labelling of medicines containing protected species or their alternative ingredients should be required.
Bear Farms
All licensed captive breeding facilities for bears should adopt the best available technology for the extraction of bile for medicinal purposes.

Nature Reserves in Sichuan

1. Wolong Nature Reserve and Giant Panda Breeding Facility
The Wolong Reserve was established in 1963 and has been one of the most celebrated of China's Nature Reserves. In 1999, 120,000 tourists visited the park including the Giant Panda Breeding Facility in Hetaoping. Working group members were concerned to find much more emphasis in Wolong placed on captive breeding and associated tourism development than on the conservation of wild pandas and their habitat, when in fact the latter should be the main function of the reserve.

In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation

• The present focus is on the captive breeding of Giant Panda. A limited amount of fieldwork has concentrated mainly on studying panda biology and preserving panda habitat. While the giant panda can be used as a flagship species to draw attention to the reserve, the scope of actual research should be broadened to include the understanding and preservation of the entire ecosystem.
  
• There should be more dialogue and co-operation between the nature reserve management team and the breeding centre management team.
  
• More dialogue and co-operation should be promoted between the different panda reserves in China.
  
• Profit generated from eco-tourism trade in the Wolong breeding facility should be channelled back into in-situ conservation projects in Wolong and other panda nature reserves. The continuity of these conservation projects should be ensured. At present the fees charged for visiting the reserve are set very low, and from our experience, not always collected. The fees should be increased in proportion to the high value of the reserve.

Education

• A better educational program is required at both the Giant Panda breeding facility and the Wolong nature reserve. This education program should include the nature and benefits of biodiversity, the role and importance of protected areas, and information on local natural history. This education program could be funded through an increase in fees charged to visitors.
  
• The education of the local residents should be enhanced to increase their knowledge of conservation. The eventual recruitment of these residents into the conservation work force should be the goal of this education program.
  

Livelihood of the people living within the Reserve

• Conservation projects within the reserve should not adversely affect and, wherever possible, should benefit the livelihood of the residents.
  
• Electricity generated by the hydrological stations within the reserve should be supplied to the local residents at cost or even free of charge to discourage the harvesting of timber for firewood and energy requirements.
  
  Reforestation Process Within the Nature Reserve
  
  
• More research should be done to identify the most suitable vegetation for the reforestation process. The goal of the reforestation should be for the restoration of the local biodiversity.
  
• Presently, only 30% of the saplings planted are grown within the reserve. The reserve should aim eventually to grow 100% of the saplings used for the reforestation process, thus providing additional revenue to people living in the reserve.
  

Re-introduction of Giant Panda

• A better understanding of the status of wild panda population and the current carrying capacity of the habitat is required before re-introduction can be considered.
  
• The aim of the breeding centre should be to ensure that the captive population remains self-sustaining, such that further capture and removal from the wild is no longer necessary. Re-introduction is not recommended unless a better understanding is established on the situation in the wild.

Tourism

• Because of its international reputation, Wolong should be made a model protected area, with significant investment in controlling litter, maintaining trails, providing useful information, using local people as nature guides, etc.
  
• Certain parts of the core area should be made available to strictly limited numbers of dedicated nature tourists, accompanied by well-trained guides and porters. Such tourists should be charged a high premium, with a good chance of seeing significant wildlife; income should go back to improving management of the reserve.
  

2. Dujiangyan Longxi-Hongkou Forest Reserve

China has achieved an exemplary record in the establishment of nature reserves to protect its valuable biodiversity. The recently created Dujiangyan Longxi-Hongkou Forest Reserve (DLH) is an excellent example of what is good in the Chinese protected area system, but also of some of the areas that need improvement. The DLH has a new and handsomely designed exhibition centre. This display highlights the natural history of the reserve.

Education:

• The exhibition centre should be encouraged to broaden its message to include the educational component of the importance of protecting biodiversity and the value of biodiversity to China. There is also an opportunity to establish clearly marked nature trails in certain areas of the reserve to showcase the reserve's natural resources and to promote true nature appreciation.
  
• One specific area, the rhododendron garden, should be further developed as a world-class attraction aimed at conserving and promoting this important genus of ornamental plant (which has its centre of diversity in China). This activity will require upgrading the display, research, and maintenance. Care must be taken to ensure that species of rhododendron that are not found in DHL are kept within the garden, and thus do not invade the reserve.
  

Monitoring:

• Reserve management has initiated a system of inventory and monitoring of biodiversity in the reserve. This activity is to be commended, especially given the difficult and rugged conditions. However, as in all nature reserves in China, there is a need for increased inventory and monitoring, training of staff in modern census techniques, and increased funding in support of this activity. In addition, these results should be made available to all protected areas in China and linked via China Species Information System (CSIS) to ensure understanding of trends of biodiversity and endangered species populations in China -- thus allowing for proper management interventions, when needed. This linkage should include research and conservation organisations (both within China and internationally).
  
• The inventory and monitoring mentioned above for the DLH, along with similar exercises in other protected areas in Sichuan, should be part of a comprehensive review of the distribution of fauna, flora (terrestrial and freshwater) to ensure that all viable populations of species and ecosystems are covered in the protected area system. This analysis is more important than the size of the system in square kilometres and could lead to identification of areas either to be converted and managed as nature reserves, and/or targeted as regions for forest recovery.
  

Administration:

• The DLH adopts a forward-thinking and needed structure, including a core area, experimental area, and various levels of buffer zone. This structure helps to ensure strict biodiversity protection as well as reserve benefits to local people. However, overall reserve administration is concomitantly divided among multiple units, and it is not clear that there is a unity of purpose or a means to settle administrative conflicts among units. A clear overarching administrative structure should be put into place to ensure unity of purpose and function in China's protected areas and nature reserves.
  

Special Recommendations to Dujiangyan
Given the special situation for Dujiangyan in applying for the nomination as a World Natural and Cultural Site under the World Heritage Convention, we recommend that the county develops a local Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. This would be a pioneering effort in China and could serve as a model and an example for other countries at the local level. They could by this effort demonstrate how they see biodiversity as a fundamental component for sustainable development.

Giving also the growing interest in the relationship between people, nature, and water as a major tourism attraction in Dujiangyan, we support the suggestion by the Dujiangyan Tourism Bureau to hold an international conference on this topic. This could form part of the preparations for the 2002 "Year of Water" being organised by the United Nations.

It is reported that there is a plan to build a large dam, the Zhipingpu Water Conservancy Project, just upstream from the Dujiangyan Irrigation Project which is unique in the world. Once this plan is brought into effect, it certainly will destroy the integrality of the region and be antipathetic to the efforts of constructing Sichuan as an eco-province, restoring farmland to forest and implementing the harmonious development of the provincial environment, etc. As a result, it will likely render impossible the area's designation as a World Heritage Site. It is necessary to evaluate the necessity/feasibility of building such a reservoir for the economic development of the Chengdu Plain at the Minjiang, which is one of the ecological key regions in the Yangtze River Watershed. This is also a serious test of whether or not environmental impact assessments (EIA) will be carried out for major construction projects (as required by CBD).

Appendix II:

Position Paper on the Use of Forests to Improve
Environment in China (Draft)

Historical Perspective
Until the 1960s forest cover in the middle catchments of the Changjiang River remained at about 45%, harvest remained modest. However, as the economy has developed there has been a pattern of accelerating levels of forest exploitation. For instance, timber harvest levels in Sichuan province rose from a 1950s level of 100,000 to 500,000 cubic metres/annum to a 1960s level of 3,000,000 cubic metres/annum.

Operation of timber farms was augmented after 1980 by additional clearance of forest for agricultural expansion and by farmers harvesting timber for house construction and fuel. Overall forest cover dropped to as low as 16% of total land area. Much of this clearance took place between 1975 and 1985. For instance, 40% of the habitat of the giant panda was destroyed in that period.

In addition to greatly damaging the hydrological function of the river system, this forest loss created severe fragmentation of forests with concomitant threat to biodiversity. Hunting pressures and pressures for collecting medicinal plants and other forest products have all increased, while the area of forests has continued to shrink.
Changes in the modus of cutting timber and treating cut forests, together with major efforts to reforest bare slopes, has been in effect since the 1980s, and the forest area is now increasing and at about 24%. Much of these new forests, however, are immature and still lack full hydrological competence.

Following the disastrous floods of 1998 and 1999 which were attributed to both siltation of downstream drainage and loss of the forest sponge effect, the Government has applied a ban on logging in the upper reaches of the Huanghe and Changjiang catchments. In addition the government has implemented a major programme for restoring forest cover for the purposes of restoring hydrological functions.

Current Policy and Programmes
The current logging ban remains in place and new initiatives have been launched to restore the forest cover. These measures form part of an even larger programme entitled 'Great West Development Programme' aimed at reducing the economic gaps growing between the westerns and eastern provinces of the country. The measures are to a large extent designed to prolong the life and improve the efficiency of the 3 Gorges Dam project.

In Sichuan a total of 23 new policies have been passed on this subject and three major programmes are in place - 'Forest Protection Programme,' 'Eco-environmental Treatment Programme' and 'Initiative to convert farmland into forest.'

The Chinese Government has Launched the Year 2000 Experimental Node Demonstration Work of Returning Farmland to Forest (Grass) in the Upper Reaches of the Yangtze River and the Upper-middle Reaches of the Huanghe River. The number of experimental nodes will include 174 counties (corps or farms) in 13 provinces (autonomous regions or municipalities directly under the Central Government): Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Chongqing and Hubei in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River (taking the Three Gorges area as the boundary) and Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia, Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, Henan, Xinjiang (including production and construction crops) in the upper-middle reaches of the Huanghe River (taking the Xiaolangdi Reservoir area as the boundary). The task of the project for the year 2000 is to return farmland to forest (grass) over an area of 5,150,000 mu (343,000ha) and to accordingly arrange 6,480,000 mu (432,000ha) of artificial forestation and grassplanting on waste hills and lands that are suitable for planting in terms of the "return one to two or three" requirement. The total need for reforestation is 2.2 million ha. The goal is to restore forest cover to more than 30%.

To ensure that the work will be conducted smoothly and for a long term, the government has made subsidy policies. I. The state will subsidize local farmers who participate this program of returning agricultural land with food. The standard of annual food (unprocessed food grains) subsidy per mu returned to farmland is 150kg in the upper reaches area of the Yangtze River and 100kg in the upper-middle reaches of the Huanghe River. II. The state will also give an adequate cash subsidy to local farmers who participate this program of returning agricultural lands. In view of the farmers' need to maintain some indispensable expenses such as medical treatment and education in the years immediately following the returning farmland, the Central finance bureau will give farmers adequate cash compensation for a certain period. The standard is arranged in terms of an annual subsidy of 20 RMB for each mu. The subsidy term of food and cash is defined according to the conditions of experimental nodes and should be for as long as needed. III. The state will also gratuitously provide local farmers who participate in this program of returning agricultural land with seedlings. In the light of the standards set for eco-forest construction, each mu receives a subsidy of 50 RMB. This expense is paid for by the Central investment to capital construction and provide for seedling production units. And also some other policies. Except for these subsidy policies, some provincial governments have also initiated some preferential policies, such as dismissing agricultural tax, reducing food order amount, dismissing tax on agriculture and forestry special local product for some years if returning farmland to plant forestry byproducts and so on.

Until middle July, according to preliminary statistics, there are 3,670,000mu has been returned from farmland and accordingly 4,637,000 mu of artificial forestation and grassplanting on waste hills and lands, which covers 71.3% and 71.6% of plans separately.

Economic Justification
Good upstream management of major catchments provides massive benefits to downstream industry, agriculture and urban areas. These benefits, which include a good supply of water, climate amelioration, flood control and hydropower potential, are often taken for granted, but are worth tens of billions of RMB each year.

It is only when upstream hydrology fails that downstream benefits can be measured in terms of losses due to floods, water shortages, power failures, climate change and other negative effects.

Floods occur because water flow during rainy seasons flows fast into river beds rather than being held in the land, and because the riverbeds that act as drains to remove surplus waters are silted up and inefficient. The lakes of the lower Changjiang, that could have acted as holding basins, are also filled up with silt resulting from poor soil protection in the upper catchments.

60% of this siltation has been determined to derive from agricultural lands, especially those farms that have been opened up on very steep slopes and slopes with loose soil texture. Rates of siltation from agricultural lands on slopes >25 degrees are calculated to be 200 times greater than from scrub or forest on the same lands.

The scale of the damage caused by such marginal agriculture is thus massive, while such farming efforts contribute almost nothing to the national economy. It makes sense to pay the price of halting those activities that have massive external costs. With rapid economic development, China is in a strong position both to absorb displaced farmers into other sectors of the economy and also to apply higher levels of tax on the primary beneficiaries of good water management and to redirect those monies into improving forest protection and watershed protection.

In a case study in Hubei province, the BWG (1996/7) was able to demonstrate that the total forest products from all the lands in Xingshan county were valued at only 2.5% of the indirect benefits derived from those forests, primarily in hydropower generation. This percentage will be even less once the 3 Gorges Dam is operational.

Programme Components
The restoration of the ecological functions of catchments in the upper reaches of major rivers should have four programme components. These should be zoned at provincial, county and township level.

• Closing degraded natural forests and scrublands to allow natural growth and regeneration, improving forest biomass and ecological function both as a water sponge and erosion control. Additional benefits would include biodiversity conservation, carbon sink and climate amelioration.
  
• Reforestation of bare and denuded hills already too degraded for natural regeneration.
  
• Converting agricultural areas to forest cover where fields have been opened up on fragile or very steep slopes.
  
• Emergency treatment of open land scars (wood-slides, landslides, etc.) together with measures to reduce the scarring of the land surface in mining and construction activities. Such scars currently account for a high proportion of the soil erosion flowing into major rivers.
  

At the present time the first three of these components are being respectively tackled by the Government's programmes for Natural Forest Protection, Eco-environment Treatment Programme and the Programme for converting farmland to forest on slopes greater than 25 degrees.

Background of the Current Report
Following the BWG studies in Hubei that clearly showed the great potential for adding to the performance of hydropower generation and improving the general biodiversity and environmental condition through forest closure, the working group has consistently advised the CCICED of the need for logging bans in many parts of China.

In his addresses to the CCICED in both 1998 and 1999, Premier Zhu Rongji stressed the importance of halting logging and restoring forest cover in the Changjiang river catchments and expressed his personal interest in this work.

Following this lead, the BWG has undertaken a preliminary field survey of selected examples in Sichuan to examine the progress of this bold initiative of restoring forests after the logging ban.
Field visits, discussions with villagers involved in the programme of returning farmland to forest and extensive discussions with concerned officials at provincial, county and village level as well as with scientists of the Sichuan Forestry Academy were conducted.

The subject was vigorously debated in a workshop held in Dujianyan from 26-28 July 2000. The present report represents the conclusions and recommendations of these studies.

Conclusions
1. The degradation of forest cover in the upper catchments of major rivers is a major contributing factor to the severe decline in hydrological functions now affecting China's endeavours to develop and prosper. This degradation results in increased incidence of floods, reduced flow of water in dry spells, unacceptable levels of soil loss, wood shortages and loss of valuable biodiversity. The Government's bold decision to halt logging and embark on a major programme of restoring forest cover and quality is sound, and economically prudent.
2. Planning and Forestry officials at national, provincial, county and township levels are to be congratulated on the speed, dedication and technical competence that they have brought to the various relevant schemes at such short notice. Most of the targets for the first phase of this programme seem to be achievable.
3. Local farmers who are participating in the programme of converting farmland to forest are to be praised for their trust, dedication and sacrifices and deserve adequate compensation and food security. From discussion with local farmers during the BWG field visit to Sichuan, local farmers are satisfied with the current announced compensation, although they are worrying that the compensation usually doesn't get to them on time and the duration of support is short. However, Evidence gathered during the BWG field visit and the statistics on how much of the converted farmland is being converted to 'economic' versus 'environmental function' forests indicates that the level of compensation offered under the trial schemes -- and particularly the short duration of support (5 years) -- is not enough to achieve the desired levels of hydrological restoration. The scheme is compromised by the need to plan quick economic returns from the converted lands.
4. Studies by BWG (in Hubei, 1996/7), provincial (Sichuan) and national experts indicate that the levels of damage resulting from some of the marginal subsistence agriculture is so great that the local economic benefits gained are trivial in comparison. The country should fully compensate the livelihood of such farmers, if need be, to halt their destructive activities. This would have to involve taxing the downstream beneficiaries of good water management to reward the sacrifices being made in the upper catchments.
The BWG team notes that some technical aspects of the reforestation programme should be reviewed in order to improve the effectiveness and speed of forest recovery. Such concernsinclude:

the constraints placed by inflexible criteria of compensation (for instance no compensation for closing forest or treating lands without land certificates and no flexibility of amount to reflect the difficulty of specific local conditions);

slope criteria (no account of terracing or fragility of local soils);

• forest treatments for closing forests, aerial seeding operations;
• use of exotic species (dangers of introducing invasive alien weeds);
  
• lack of species complexity;
  
• continued grazing in forest lands (leading to erosion and retarding tree growth); and
  
• lack of attention to serious land-scars not under farm use, etc.
  More attention should be placed on the ecological integrity of forests; their ability to sustain themselves without further human inputs, their connectivity to other forests and their role in biodiversity conservation of key species. In some cases, good recommendations for improvement can already be offered. In other cases, areas for further studies and research are identified.
  5. The BWG team feels that there is currently too much emphasis on numerical targets (in terms of area or numbers of trees planted) to monitor the success of the scheme. Not enough emphasis is being placed on forest quality and monitoring the actual effectiveness in terms of hydrological improvement.

  Recommendations
  Policy and Planning
  
  1. Schemes for forest protection and restoration of farmland to tree cover should be based less on inflexible national figures and more on the real and particular characteristics of the respective counties and townships. These schemes should be directed towards achieving measurable improvements in hydrological function and environmental welfare including biodiversity issues and zonal representation.
  
  2. The policy and strategy of the Initiative (to return agricultural land to forest) should be clarified to better reveal the ultimate objectives of restoring the hydrology of major rivers, biodiversity conservation and overall environmental welfare. This should be emphasized and reiterated so that efforts and measures are not side-streamed to other practices such as planting economic trees or fodder grasses even if this puts a higher total to the cost of the operation.
  
  3. Plans should wherever possible harness rather than run counter to the powerful forces of nature in terms of natural regeneration, species succession, pollination, seed dispersal by wind, slopes, water and animals, natural pest control and should require minimal human intervention in achieving sustainability. In this respect, the reestablishment of complex systems using local species is preferred. Suggested guidelines to assist with restoration work are included in Annex.
  

  4. Farmland should be converted to 'economic' forest only on less severe slopes, areas with terracing, areas immediately around villages and homesteads and on slopes that have deep enough soil profile. In such cases the use of non-native cash crop trees (fruits, medicinal etc.) may be planted provided these are known to be unable to invade nearby native forests.
  
  5. No use of exotics should be planned in the 'environmental service' forests. Even local species should only be planted within their natural conditions of slope and altitude. Involvement of nitrogen fixing species is encouraged for overall increase in soil development. Broadleaf species are generally preferred to conifers because they have deeper tap-roots and allow denser undergrowth and soil cover to protect against soil erosion.
  
  6. Great attention must be paid to the total forest and not just the canopy layer. Development of good ground cover and the tree recruitment layer is essential to ensure adequate succession and quality soil protection.
  
  7. A new programme should be initiated to minimise the creation of erosion land scars and for the prompt treatment of such scars that result from natural landslip, mining, construction and timber collection activities. Regulations should be developed to limit the damage caused by mining and construction activity. Wood-slips for dragging and dropping timber and fuel-wood down steep slopes should be closed and ways to seed over bare areas with quick growing native pioneerspecies should be developed.

Ongoing monitoring and research
8. To set up a long-term, extensive scheme to monitor water quality for suspended soil particles and seasonal rates of water flow in order to reflect the effectiveness of the measures in this initiative, even at small stream level and following hydrological rather than administrative boundaries.
9. Studies on patterns of natural plant succession and natural forest ecosystems in covering such bare land under different local conditions should be compiled and continued as a guide to selecting appropriate species for such work.
10. Strict monitoring of any exotic species introduced into project areas should be mandatory and elimination programmes instituted if these become invasive.

Compensation
11. The restoration, protection and maintenance of forest cover in important catchments is a permanent need and not a once-off activity. Mechanisms for funding these activities and paying suitable compensation to communities suffering limited development options because of restrictions on forest use and clearance should be permanent and institutionalised by law and taxation of downstream beneficiaries (primarily users of water and electricity).
12. Levels of compensation offered to farmers to abandon agriculture on steep slopes and to adhere to other restrictive regulations in forest areas (grazing, cutting of timber and fuel) must be significantly raised to levels that realistically allow the farmers concerned to seek alternate livelihoods.

Education
13. To launch education programmes designed to teach local people how valuable their natural resources are, and training programmes targeting provincial/county/village level leaders on how to view 'ecology' in economic terms.

Annex: Basic Principles for Forest Restoration Programme (Draft)

The task of restoring ecological functions is of an order of magnitude more important than the productivity on those degraded lands and should not be compromised by inclusion of secondary economic objectives.

Forests should imitate and use nature and natural forces as far as possible. Un-natural monocultures and exotic species should be avoided. Planning and maintaining connectivity between reforested areas and natural stands should be encouraged.

Forests should be self-sustaining with capacity for natural tree replacement, pollination, seed dispersal, secondary pioneer capacity to reforest open areas and maintain healthy biodiversity.
Attention should be paid to the development of good ground cover to reduce soil erosion and good root penetration to increase soil permeability. Health of a rich soil biota is essential.

Activities that severely conflict with forest restoration and soil/water conservation include the cutting of timber and fuel wood, free range grazing of domestic ungulates and forest fire. Strict regulations should be enforced to limit these activities. Hunting of wildlife (ungulates, monkeys, fruit-eating birds) that are essential for ecosystem functionality, particularly as seed distribution agents, natural pest control and pollinators, may also need to be controlled. Restrictions on use of toxic treatments may also be required.

Farmers and villagers must be adequately compensated for loss of economic options involved in such a programme. In particular they should be guaranteed food security. Their dependence on wood fuel should be reduced through the provision of subsidised coal and electricity.

Schemes should be developed to absorb local farmers who have reforested steep fields by developing new industries and employment in local townships, providing new training and recruitment into forest protection, reforestation and eco-tourism work.

Technical Notes
Guidelines for reducing soil erosion
Soil erosion is best reduced by maintaining dense cover over the soil and by preventing the panning of soils.

In forests a deep leaf litter, moss cover, bamboo thickets or dense undergrowth should be achieved.
Plantations that are too dark or which naturally inhibit undergrowth are generally poor at protecting soils. Exposure of tree roots is a clear indication of high levels of soil erosion and the need to change the forest or plantation structure.

Forests should ideally be age staggered so that there are well-developed sapling and recruitment layers. This is usually not the case in monoculture plantations.

In economic plantations the ground cover under the trees should be either deeply cultivated to give high rates of water penetration or be clothed in grass or other vegetation. There is a conflict of interest in maintaining dense ground cover under economic trees as this will reduce the tree yields and farmers will be tempted to clear weeds under their trees even though this will increase erosion.

Guidelines for increasing water retention of land
The most important hydrological function of forests is to improve the water sponge effect which reduced the flow of water in wet seasons by holding much of the rainfall in the soil, land and living tissues and reduced incidence of dry season water shortages by providing longer stream flow.
The main factor in increasing the sponge effect is in increasing the soil permeability under the forest cover.

This result is best achieved by promoting forests with well developed structure, rich under-storey, prevention of panning of soils, maintaining a rich biota of soil organisms (cicadas, worms, etc. that aerate the soil layer and actively help to develop soil and soil profile) and particularly in the action of deep rooting and shallow rooting trees that permeate the soil and underlying rocks.

Guidelines for harnessing natural wind dispersal of seeds
Wind is a powerful force that is used in nature for natural forestation of bare areas by pioneer plants and some climax trees (e.g. conifers).

It is wise to leave adequate parent trees in managed forests to act as seed sources to promote reforestation. Similarly it is a useful technique to initially establish tree cover at the head of valleys and along ridges from where natural wind dispersal of seeds and the direction of gravity will allow the natural seeding of lands below.

Some species of herbs and shrubs can distribute their seeds in wind by as much as one km. Most conifer species are only able to spread seeds for about 100 m. In the latter case the use of strip planting can achieve a total forest cover at a fraction of the cost of total planting.

Guidelines for harnessing animals as seed dispersal agents
Wildlife should be protected so as to use their function as seed dispersal agents.
Some seeds adhere to the fur of animals and thus are passively distributed. Other animals eat fruits and disperse seeds in their dung. Others, such as birds that eat conifer seeds, spread seeds accidentally during food collection.

Primates and pigeons can disperse large fruits of climax trees in this way. In tropical zones, fruit bats can also disperse large seeds. Smaller birds such as bulbuls and pheasants are effective at dispersing small seeds of berries and can significantly accelerate the natural spread of woody vegetation.

Planting shade cover for shy species (pheasants) or fast growing food attractants such as Rubus, Sorbus, etc. at distances of a few hundred metres from the forest edge will encourage birds to fly across open areas to feed in such spots and deposit other seeds from the forest as they do so.

Guidelines for closing forests
Closing forests is the fastest way to restore natural forest.
It is not necessary to create physical fences to close forests, but regulations need to be imposed to strictly ban logging, firewood collection, burning of vegetation and free-range grazing of domestic animals.

The hooves of ungulates create trails that develop as erosion gullies, loosen the topsoil so that it becomes washed away in heavy rains, and eat young trees retarding regeneration. Such animals should be confined to pastures or paddocks. The cutting of herbs and grass for fodder can be permitted in closed forests.

Fire is a great danger to young trees in the relatively dry northern forests and in the very hot southern forests; it is less important in the humid central forests.
Where forest fires are prevalent special fire prevention and fire-fighting measures should be installed, such as cutting fire barriers or planting green barriers of non-inflammable species.
Village fire-watch and fire-fighting brigades should be organised and trained to notice and extinguish wild fires at the earliest.

Special care should be taken in selecting tree species for planting that are less fire-prone. Generally speaking conifers and such exotics as Eucalyptus and Acacia are extremely inflammable.

Care should be taken to prevent the build up of dangerous levels of dry inflammable vegetation in the undergrowth.

Climate monitoring combined with maps of fire-proneness of vegetation should be used to provide an early warning of fire likelihood.

Strict regulations should be imposed on the burning of vegetation.
Knowledge of the seedling needs of different species can lead to simple forest treatments that can accelerate natural processes of regeneration. Seeds of Abies and Tsuga germinate on rotting fallen logs, Other species require some opening of the herb layer to allow seedling survival. Other species need a preliminary shade layer before seedlings can survive.

Guidelines for absorption of farmers into other activities
There is a decline in populations of farmers on steep slopes as this is hard unrewarding work and most young people prefer to go to town in search of work instead.
This trend could be further encouraged by seriously developing the local townships through investment and harnessing more of the hydropower potential that could subsidise energy costs and stimulate local industries.

Special recruitment priority could be given to farmers that have reforested and abandoned their fields.

Special training should be made available to prepare ex-farmers to undertake other kinds of employment.

Labor could be absorbed into new activities such as forest protection and planting and into restoring or creating terraces on steep mountainsides. Some farmers should be paid to maintain the valuable germ-plasm by continuing to cultivate local variants of crops and vegetables or grow wild relatives of domestic varieties. This is a vital function even though not immediately commercial, and will need subsidisation.

Local farmers can be employed in maintaining tree nurseries, collecting tree seeds from local forests and in development of new eco-tourism ventures.

Appendix III:

China Massive Introduction of Oregon Grass Seed for the Purpose of Controlling Erosion
- Will There be Effects on China's Endemic Biodiversity?

Background

In a briefing book for the Oregon State Senators, Representatives and business people, prepared by the Oregon Economic and Community Development Department-International Division, contains the following, quoted passage:

"The Oregon Seed Council shipped 23 varieties of Ryegrass, Tall Fescue and Orchard grass to Beijing in 1980 to introduce China to seeds from Oregon. The seed was planted with varying degrees of success. Through the 1980's exchange students and visiting professors studied at Oregon State University, some of whom were sponsored by the Oregon Seed Council. In 1992, the Oregon Seed Council received its first Market Access Program (MAP) grant from the Foreign Agricultural Service FDA/USDA, to develop markets in China, Mexico and Chile. Extensive adaptation and demonstration trials were developed throughout central eastern China using both turf and forage varieties of the six major species of temperate season grass. From these trials the China National Turf Variety Trial program was developed including eleven regional universities through eastern China. Erosion control trials were established in Yichang at the site of the Three Gorges Dam. These programs continue to grow as the value of grasses for beautification, forage, erosion control and environmental enhancement (dust control and steam sedimentation) has become evident. During the period 1994 - July 1999, Oregon grass seed exports to China have grown from 85,000 pounds to 6.5 million pounds. The Oregon Seed Council estimates that in five to ten years China could import 100 million pounds of seed annually."

Last year, China imported over 6,000 metric tons of grass seed for lawns and erosion control, of which about 75% came from Oregon. Expectations are that Oregon will increase its grass seed export to China by many fold, that extensive test gardens planted with Oregon seed in China will show the utility of the Oregon varieties, and that Oregon varieties can be matched with climate data obtained from weather stations throughout your country. Oregon businessmen and politicians view the increase in Oregon grass seed to China a perfect success story of their enterprise, and building commerce with China.

Part of the rationale for the import of the grass seed is that seeding expansive regions of Western China will reduce the severity of erosion and eliminate the dust storms that plague Beijing. Also, there is much discussion of using the seed to prevent erosion at reservoirs at the Three Gorges Dam, and to plant large amounts of grass seed along the new freeways and highways under construction. Such planting strategies seem sure to encourage spread and invasion.

However, even within China, it seems there are many who will press for the continued importation. To make a change in Chinese policy, there needs to be a decision from a high-level authority.

The problem of invasive species
An invasive alien species is defined as that it: 1) has been introduced into an area where it is not native from its natural range by either intentional or unintentional human activity; 2) has established a self-reproducing population in a local natural or artificial ecosystems; and 3) has caused obvious changes in a natural ecosystem or landscape, or has caused damages to a local natural or artificial ecosystem. Alien species may not always be invasive, the vast majority of alien species do not pose a problem in natural areas because they are restricted to urban areas, agricultural fields, and other highly disturbed sites. Other alien species do grow in natural areas but they occur in small numbers and do not appear to displace or significantly compete with the native flora. Finally, there is a small group of primarily alien species that has the ability not only to grow in natural areas but to thrive in them and to do so at the expense of the original native flora. They are invasive species.

Potential impact of invasive species
1. Threaten China's endemic biodiversity:

Invasive aliens can have a number of impacts upon a natural area. These impacts can be on the natural area itself or they can be on the human use or enjoyment of this area. When an invasive alien becomes established in a natural area, it displaces some of the existing native plant. In extreme infestations, there may be a loss of most of the original vegetation. This original vegetation would have supported a complex suite of animals that fed upon or reproduced within this plant community. When the community is taken over by one or two invasive species, many of the animals are displaced along with their host plants. The species displaced may include rare native flora and fauna that could be seriously threatened by invasion.

2. Hybridize with local relative species:

Some species are both native and introduced, the establishment and spread of the alien cultivars could genetically 'swamp' the native populations and ultimately eliminate the native genotype in many areas.

3. Cause economic loss:

The invasion can cause economic loss in many ways, such as loss revenue and control cost, loss of value of ecotourism because of loss of biodiversity and endemic species and that invasive plants interfere with recreational activities. In USA, in 1994, the economic impact of weeds on the U.S. economy was estimated to be $20 billion or more annually. In the agricultural sector, losses and control costs associated with weeds in 46 major crops, pasture, hay and range, and animal health were estimated to be more than $15 billion per year. In non-crop sectors including golf, turf and ornamentals, highway rights-of-way, industrial sites, aquatic sites, forestry, and other sites, losses and control costs totaled about $5 billion per year. The importance of herbicides in modern weed management is underscored by estimates that losses in the agricultural sector would increase about 500% from $4.1 billion to $20 billion per year without the use of herbicides. Since introduced species account for about 65% of the total weed flora in the United States, their total economic impact on the U.S. economy equals or exceeds $13 billion per year. (Westbrooks, R., 1998).

Some examples

There are hundreds of cases to prove that intentional introduction of alien species has caused great loss of local biodiversity and economy. Here are some examples of species, introduced for the purpose of erosion control, which caused problems in China or other countries.

In China:
Common cordgrass is a hybrid, originally from western Europe, of Spartina alterniflora and S. patens. It was introduced to the coast of Jiangsu Province from Denmark, The Netherlands and the United Kingdom in 1963 to protect banks from erosion and to improve soils. The species was also used for forage and for paper-making materials. During the next 20 years, the species was widely cultivated north to Jingxi, Niaoning and south to beaches in Guangxi, covering more than 30,000hm2. It has become a predominant species in many of these regions, outcompeting other plants and threatening native biota. (Xie Yan et al., 2000).

Darnel ryegrass (Lolium temulentum) is native to Europe, where it is a common weed in wheat fields and consequently is often found as a contaminant in grain shipments. It was first found in imported wheat from Bulgaria in 1954. By 1957, the species had become established in Heilongjiang Province. By 1961, its range had expanded from several to 45 counties. The species was subsequently found in imported wheat from Australia, the USA, Canada, Argentina, France, Germany, Turkey, Greece, Egypt and Netherlands. In addition, because of improper trade in imported wheat and lack of quarantine for transportation of wheat within China, darnel ryegrass has now invaded crop fields throughout most of China. It is now reported from all provinces and regions of China except Tibet and Taiwan. Its seed is sometimes infested by a fungus which makes it poisonous to people and domestic animals (Xie Yan et al.2000). From the recent survey of BWG, some species in the genus Lolium, such as annual rye (Lolium multiflorum), perennial ryegrass (L. perenne) and L.temulentum, introduced from Eastern Europe are still widely planted for restoration of grassland and erosion control in many areas.

In New Zealand:
A significant number of New Zealand's environmental weeds were introduced or spread around the country for the purpose of "soil stabilisation" or erosion control. One of the worst would have to be the North American species lodgepole or contorta pine (Pinus contorta). Not only was this species planted for erosion control, but in some cases seed was aerially sown from helicopters. This happened about thirty years ago. Now it is regarded as a major weed, because being a tree it dominates the native grass and shrub communities in these areas, and these communities are highly valued for both their biodiversity and for the landscape.

The second example from New Zealand would be the introduction of marram grass (Ammophila arenaria) to stabilise coastal sand dunes. In most cases the dunes were naturally mobile. The rate of movement was often accelerated further by the development once the fore dunes had tracks cut through them for beach access. This did not suit the developers as the dunes would move inland swallowing roads, houses and plantation forests. The common answer was to plant marram grass, a fast spreading exotic grass, to stabilise the moving sands. This has slowed the movement of the dunes in most cases but has been detrimental to native species, particularly spinifex which is less aggressive than marram and pingao which relies on sand movement to compete. The invasive marram grass has been introduced to almost every dune community in the country.

The third example is the willows (Salix spp), particularly the grey willow (Salix cinerea) and the crack willow (S. fragilis). These are planted to stabilise river banks, but not only do they exclude the native vegetation on these areas but they also invade wetlands, with disastrous consequences on these already depleted ecosystems. Other species valued because they control erosion in some circumstances and cursed in others as environmental weeds include boneseed (Chrysanthemoides monilifera), boxthorn (Lycium ferocissimum), tree lupin (Lupinus arboreus), agapanthus (Agapanthus praecox) and kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum). Ivy (Hedera helix) was also planted to control eroding roadside banks. It is totally ineffective for this purpose, but it spreads into native forest from these plantings.

In USA:
In Washington and Oregon it has been the experience that once rhizomatous and stoloniferous grasses of European origin become established, it is very difficult to reestablish native species. especially in dry (xeric) situations (dry grasslands) and wetlands. Of particular concern are annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne). Orchardgrass (Dactylus glomerata) and Tall Fescue (Festuca arundinaceae) are also invasive of both dry and wet ecosystems.

In the central part of the US, there is only small remnants left of the native grasslands - prairies, savannas and barrens. Orchard grass and several other turf grasses not native to this area have long been the dominant grasses in these grasslands. It is only with regular burning that we can cause them to decline and allow the native grasses to compete with them. Sites managed for the native grass and forbs for over 60 years still have large amounts of these introduced turf grasses.

Many of the species that are grown for turf here in Oregon have become nuisance weeds in more pristine areas. The Willamette Valley is the source of most of the seed mentioned in the background. A large amount of time, money, and frustration is spent trying to control weeds such as perennial rye, annual rye, tall fescue, orchard grass, purple velvet grass, and others that have aggressive qualities and successfully out compete many of the native species. Of the invasive species we are working with, grasses pose the most significant challenge. Control methods are available for many of the woody species and others that take many years to mature. However, grasses are able to persist and even thrive despite people's most aggressive measures. Additionally, it is found that many of these exotic grasses are the first to become established after even minimal disturbance to soil or native plant cover.

In Israel:
Heterotheca subaxillaris was introduced into Israel from Texas in 1975 as a dune stabilizer and has since escaped aggressively to sandy roadsides, dunes and fields. Five grams of seed were sown in the coast of Galilee, and the same amount in the Sharon plain (60km N of Tel-Aviv). It is now spreading from year toyear along roadsides and gardens aggressively and into natural habitats on sands - up to 30km from its pioneer population. Since this species is known to originate in North Carolina as a colonizing weed (Awang & Monaco 1978) it is a pity that such a species was intentionally introduced. (Dafni, Amots and Heller, David. 1990)

On the Faroe Islands:
Tall fabacaea (Lupinus nootkatensis) has severe negative effects. Introduced plants species have also been used along roadsides and on steep slopes to protect the soil from washing away. Severe erosion problems caused by a harsh climate, too intense exploitation of the vegetation and the sensitive soils have motivated the use of Nootka lupin (Lupinus nootkatensis) for restoring or reclaiming new vegetation cover on Iceland (Magnusson 1999). The species, however, also thrives very well on the natural "sandur" substratum (sandy fluvial deposits) and is currently spreading rapidly on Iceland and also to some extent in Norway (Borgthor Magnusson, pers. comm., Karlsson 1981). On Iceland various species are out-competed and disappear locally where the invading Nootka Lupin (Lupinus nootkatensis) is spreading (Magnusson 1999).

References
Dafni, Amots and Heller, David. 1990. "Invasions of adventive plants in Israel." Section 8 in Biological Invasions in Europe and the Mediterranean Basin. di Castri, F., Hansen, A.J. and Debussche, M. eds. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.

Magnusson, B. (1999). Biology and utilization of Nootka lupin (Lupinus nootkatensis) in Iveland. Pages 42-48 in: G. D. Hill (ed.). Towards the 21st Century. Proceedings of the 8th International Lupin Conference. International Lupin Association, Canterbury, New Zealand.

Westbrooks, R., 1998. Invasive plants, changing the landscape of America: Fact book. Federal Interagency Committee for the Management of Noxious and Exotic Weeds (FICMNEW), Washington, D.C. 109pp.

XIE Yan, LI Zhenyu, William P. Gregg, LI Dianmo. 2000. Invasive Species in China -- An Overview. (Accepted by Biodiversity and Conservation)

Appendix IV:

Upper Yangtze Integrated Conservation and Development Project
Qinghai Province, China

Interim Progress Report

Summary

The Yangtze River Headwaters Integrated Conservation and Development Organization (Upper Yangtze Organization or UYO), in close collaboration with the Biodiversity Working Group (BWG) of the China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development (CCICED), is producing an "Integrated Conservation and Development Plan" for the high alpine grasslands of the Upper Yangtze River region (Suojia District) of China's Qinghai Province. The Plan will help determine how conservation and development can be integrated regionally to assure that the high grasslands of the Tibetan Plateau can be used simultaneously for the promotion of long?term sustainable animal husbandry, protection of biodiversity, and maintenance of Tibetan cultural values. The UYO has initiated the Upper Yangtze Integrated Conservation and Development Project (The Upper Yangtze Project) locally with linkages to the BWG for assistance in Project development and capacity-building. Significant accomplishments have been made during the first full year of Plan activity.

Background

Until recently, the 4,400 m elevation alpine grasslands of Suojia District in China's southwestern Qinghai Province were a haven for the rich biological heritage originally found on the Tibetan Plateau (Tibetan antelope, wild yak, Tibetan wild ass, blue sheep, Tibetan gazelle, white?lipped deer, argali, snow leopard, wolves, bears, black?necked cranes, etc.). For many centuries, and up until the early 1960s, this region was sparsely inhabited by several semi?nomadic tribes of Tibetan hunters. With the establishment of Suojia District in 1972, pastoralism was introduced into the area, a development which has lead to marked changes in the grassland ecosystem. These changes include noticeable declines in native wildlife (from increased poaching) and in grassland productivity (with its concomitant negative influence on animal husbandry). On the other hand, the relatively recent settlement in the area means that there are still wild populations to work with and grasslands that can potentially be managed to produce sustainable animal husbandry. The district reportedly remains home to at least 30 snow leopards in approximately 200 km2 of remote mountains, 40 or more black-necked cranes in 25?30 km2 of wetlands, and a growing resident population of Tibetan antelope that occur in over 2,000 km2 of arid steppe habitat. Thus the region is ideal as a demonstration project for sustainable management of alpine grassland ecosystems on the Tibetan plateau.

The UYO, in consultation with local county, district and provincial government officials, has recognized the long?term danger to the economy and culture of Suojia District from the loss of native biodiversity and rangeland degradation. Thus the UYO initiated the development and implementation of a comprehensive plan for the management of its natural heritage ? particularly its native wildlife and wide open grasslands. As there is little capacity in Suojia District to develop or implement the many intertwining features of a comprehensive conservation and development plan, the UYO requested international assistance from the BWG. In turn, the BWG has initiated a CCICED-approved Alpine Grasslands Demonstration Project with the same goals as the UYO, leading to the linkage of the two organizations with the formation of the Upper Yangtze Project.

Solution

The purpose of the Upper Yangtze Project is to develop an Integrated Conservation and Development Plan (the Plan) for the Suojia District that will
1) ensure that its natural resources (native biodiversity and rangelands) are used sustainably for the long-term benefit of local people; and
2) build the capacity of the UYO and local people to implement the Plan successfully by engaging them in the process of Plan development through participatory workshops, coupled with increased education and training.

BWG participation will be directed primarily toward Plan development and capacity-building. Participation of the BWG in the project is designed to ensure that the UYO is fully capable of implementing the plan on its own and without significant external assistance. Additionally, the project will explore the possibility of limited nature tourism as a funding mechanism to support local efforts to preserve biodiversity and mitigate the causes and impacts of overgrazing.

Project Goals

• Assist with building the capacity of local institutions and communities to assess environmental conservation and sustainable economic development opportunities in the development of an Integrated Conservation and Development Plan.
  
• Promote sustainable and integrated development of the grasslands to support traditional animal husbandry practices.
  
• Develop four community-supported protected areas in the district for resident populations of culturally important species (snow leopard, black-necked crane, Tibetan antelope, Tibetan wild ass - kiang).
  
• Prepare an analysis to assess the feasibility of a limited, community?based ecotourism plan.
  
• Develop multiple avenues for environmental education.
  

Upper Yangtze Project First Year (1999 - 2000) Interim Project Accomplishments

The UYO has over 100 members, 80% of them herdsmen.
u An eight member expert advisory committee has been established (BWG Alpine Grasslands Project Director, Andrew T. Smith, and J. Marc Foggin, representing Plateau Perspectives NGO, Canada, are the sole international members).

Usage rights were obtained to 133 km2 of grassland to function as a grassland management demonstration area.

A Suojia Township Environmental Protection Bureau was established with four branches (the four villages in the area) and 16 supervisors - each now equipped with a semi-permanent field tent and binoculars to assist with field work and anti-poaching patrols.

Three no hunting zones in Suojia district were established.

Four local protected areas (one for each of the following species: black-necked crane, snow leopard, Tibetan antelope, and Tibetan wild ass) were established.

Environmental protection classes were initiated in the Zhiduo County Minority Middle School (beginning in April 1999). This effort facilitated with an environmental awareness video that was taped, transcribed and translated into Chinese (original video produced by John and Janet Foster on Canada's Prairie Grasslands).

A community center was established in Muqu village where children will attend school and adult training in environmental awareness is planned. This center will also serve as a research base for sustainable animal husbandry, ecotourism, and wildlife studies.

A tent school was established in Yaqu village.

Further methods of environmental education are being explored, including a book highlighting native knowledge of grazing systems and nature appreciation.

Interviews were conducted with the Xinhua News Agency Qinghai branch, Xinhua News Agency Hebei branch, the Guangming Daily newspaper, China Science and Technology newspaper, Beijing TV and a local Qinghai newspaper.

The Qinghai Province Environmental Protection Bureau was consulted regarding the activities of the UYO and the scope of the Upper Yangtze Project.

Foggin conducted three extended site consultations to the Upper Yangtze Project area beginning in 1998, and Smith and Foggin met with and inspected Qinghai alpine grassland ecosystems with UYO Director, Drashi Dorji Hashi (Zhaduo) in 1999.

Zhaduo attended the 2000 meeting of the CCICED/BWG in Dujiangyan, Sichuan, giving a presentation on the background and accomplishments of the UYO in its collaboration with the BWG.

The UYO is also committed to providing improved health care and literacy in the Project area; in this vein they have liaised with appropriate NGOs, arrangements being made by Foggin and Plateau

Perspectives.
Discussions were initiated for collaboration with Fauna and Flora International, which also has plans for a project in the Upper Yangtze region.

Implementing Organizations

Local organization:

Yangtze River Headwaters Integrated Conservation and Development Organization (or Upper Yangtze Organization ? UYO)
Director: Drashi Dorje Hashi (Zhaduo).
(The UYO is Suojia District's and Zhiduo County's first officially established and registered people's organization - e.g. NGO).

CCICED/BWG Alpine Grasslands Demonstration Project:

Director: Dr. Andrew T. Smith
Project Manager: Dr. J. Marc Foggin (also representing Plateau Perspectives, Canada)
Arizona State University and Biodiversity Working Group (BWG) of the China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development (CCICED).

Funding

Primary funding for the conservation and biodiversity components of the Upper Yangtze Project have been generously provided by the Government of Norway, as a dedicated allocation of its funding support of the CCICED/Biodiversity Working Group, Plateau Perspectives (Canada), and Global Greengrants - A Tides Foundation (US).